Origins of the Western Monasticism

George   Valsamis
Origins of the Western Monasticism in the 4th and 5th c. A.D.




THE ISSUE of the origins of organised monasticism has caused much talk. In St. John Cassian’s 18th Collatio abbot Piamoun uses the exemplar of the first apostolic community in Jerusalem (a common connection in ascetic writings), saying that even bishops (ecclesiae principes) ignored that model, by taking advantage of the leniency of the apostles towards the nations, they abolished the principle of poverty. Those who wished to keep a strict Christian life, left the cities in the course of time, they separated themselves from the lukewarm multitude of Christians. They did not get married and they did not keep any contact with their relatives in the world. This is how coenobitic monasticism was founded. For the austerity of their life and the abandonment of the world they were called μοναχοί (monachoi) and μονάζοντες (monazontes), while for their common life with each other they were called κοινοβιάτες (coenobiates). (1)

Abbot Piamoun’s explanation differs from the one in Cassian’s second book of the Instituta, in that it seems to impute the supposed decline of the Christian spirit to the Apostles’ policy towards the nations. Besides this, in the second book of the Instituta ascetic life, as it was developed later, in the patristic period, is considered superior even to the exemplary community of Jerusalem. (2)

Cassian’s theory resembles certain modern views, according to which the founding of monasticism should be ascribed to the increasing secularisation of the Church when persecutions ended. Yet, in Cassian’s explanation, monastic is the Christian life at its height, and as such it would be impossible to appear suddenly three centuries after the Christian message appeared, and as a phenomenon of a negative course, at that. In Cassian too, the appearance of monasticism has in part a negative character, yet this is secondary; primarily and positively it is founded on the life of the ancient Church. The case of Eusebius of Caesaria is even more characteristic. He didn’t see anything strange in the appearance of a Christian coenobium in the 1st c. A.D., when he was describing as such the jewish community of the ‘therapists’, mentioned by Philo. Most likely Eusebius was not trying to establish a connection between monasticism of his times and the older history of the Church, because when he was commenting on Philo’s testimony, the coenobitic structure of Pachomius did not exist.


IT IS known that from Paul’s time already, there was an oath of virgins and widows, which, in the third century (at least), was being given before a bishop. (3) The emphasis of the Fathers on continence and virginity is also known. Jerome too, in his famous ascetic epistle 22 to the virgin Eustochium, stresses the importance of Tertullian, Cyprian, Damasus and Ambrosius to the development of monasticism, concentrating, obviously, in the western tradition. In the epistle of St. Ignatius Theophorus to Polycarp, we find traces of the formation of a distinct monastic class inside the Christian Church, and, moreover, we see that those who had chosen the way of celibacy, considered themselves offen superior to the bishop.(4) St. Irenaeus describes the apostles as ascetics, who abandoned all worldy relationships for the Word of God. Irenaeus conjoins the priestly, the apostolic and the ascetic attributes.(5) And we should also take into account the significance of the Martyrs in the formation of Christian monasticism. In St. Ignatius’ Epistle to the Romans, death is seen as a way of freedom pointing to Christ.(6) We find in Irenaeus, as an essential characteristic of a Christian, studying to die (μελετᾶν ἀποθνήσκειν).(7) In the times of Ignatius already, and according to the exemplar of the discussion between Christ and the youth who searched for perfection, monasticism was a choice, it had to be by all means voluntary.(8) When Christians were still being slaughtered by the governing power, it would be rather difficult to have devotion and the making of institutions out of such a devotion to the war against invisible demons. It was a time of patience in faith and in the confession before visible demons, and yet, already in Origen there is the distinction between seeable (ἐν φανερῷ) and secret (ἐν κρυπτῷ) martyrdom.(9)

In the Epistle 127 (about Marcella), Jerome’ note about how important was for the formation of western monasticism, the sojourns of Easterners to the West and of Westerners to the East due to the arian conflicts, presupposes an already existing western ascetical tradition, independent from the eastern one, at that.

In the first Christian centuries ascesis in both East and West was being practised by a Christian individually, in personal virginity, prayer, charity and fast, without going away from one’s city or even family. (10) At about the middle of the 3rd c., it was common for such a person to withdraw a little out of the boundaries of the city or village. St. Anthony the Great, according to the Life of St. Athanasius the Great, went through both those steps.(11) It seems that in the West ascesis continued in such a way for a little longer than in some areas of the East. Yet even in the East, if we recall e.g. Pontus, private ascesis was not a rare phenomenon. St. Basil the Great, although having visited Egypt, chose by himself the place of his ascesis, he did not entered a coenobium, he longed for the company of his friend Gregory the Theologian, he composed himself his ascetical plan.


IN THE BEGINNING of the 4th c. in Rome, a youth of aristocratic descent was depreciated to a great extent by becoming a monk, so that this had to be done as secretly as possible. (12) After the information St. Athanasius gave about Anthony and Pachomius, the monks, which until then were being despised by aristocracy, gained strength and courage. When Athanasius was writing the Life of St. Anthony, about thirty years after the founding of the first coenobium by Pachomius, there had also started to appear in the West the first monasteries,(13) and from Rome they extended to all Italy.(14) Pope Sixtus the 3rd founded a monastery for men in St. Sebastian, ad catacumbas. The monastery of St. Agnes in Rome was founded at about the middle of the 4th c.(15) We also know about two monasteries for women, one in Bologna and another in Verona.(16) Eusebius of Vercelli contributed significantly by applying actively the theoretical connection St. Irenaeus had made between priesthood and ascesis. Eusebius gathered with him clerics to live ascetically, “ut esset in ipsis viris contemptus rerum et accuratio levitarum”.(17) Eusebius was in exile in Scythopolis of Palestine and in Thebais of Egypt from 355 to 362, where he gained familiarity with Eastern ascesis. He slept in 370.(18) The attitude of Eusebius of Vercelli is to be found also in St. Ambrose.(19) He gave his property to the poor, he fasted and prayed in vigils. Ambrose was supporting a monastery for men in the gates of Milan and he showed a special interest in encouraging monasticism among women. He had such a great effect, that he was accused of decreasing the population of the empire!(20) Jerome believed that Ambrose spoke about virginity better that any of the previous Fathers.(21)

Another western bishop who combined the life of the ascetic with that of the priest was Paulinus. His descent was from an aristocratic family of Aquitaine and he was governor of Campania. At about 409 he was elected bishop of Nola in Italy. (22) He called himself a monachus and his residence a monasterium.(23) Paulinus stressed the importance of poverty.

Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, stayed in the East from 356 to 360. (24) What is of interest here to us, is that Hilary was very much appreciated and known as a teacher and protector of St. Martin, the first great ascetic of the West and bishop of Tour. Martin was born in Pannonia but from an early age he left in Italy. According to his old biographer Sulpicius Severus, Martin was 10 years old when he entered voluntarily the class of catechumens, and at about 327, 12 years old, he wanted to follow the eremitical life, but an imperial edict forced him to serve in the Roman army. He was baptised at about 337. After two years roughly, Martin sought after Hilary’s help and he settled in Poitiers. Hilary tried to ordain him a deacon, but Martin refused and he agreed at last to receive only the office of the exorcist. After a while he left to Illyricum to work in a mission. His mother became a Christian but his compatriots drove him away. He went to a cell in Milan, where he faced the enmity of the arian bishop Auxentius, so that he withdrew as an hermit in Gallinaria island. About 360, when Hilary returned from exile, Martin went again to Galatia. He was living ascetically in the suburbs of Poitiers, in Ligugé, and soon many disciples gathered around him. In 371 Martin was ordained bishop of Tour under the pressure of the people, who admired him for his faith and the miracles that he did. Yet, even as a bishop he went on living ascetically, he kept his humble spirit and he was still wearing the same humble clothes, according to his biographer.(25) Oftentimes he withdrew in a cell near the church, yet many disciples visited him and he was forced to found a new hermitage in Marmoutier, about two miles away from Tour. About eighty disciples gathered together with him, living in individual cells too. That system resembled the Eastern Lavra. All property was held in common and no commercial action was allowed. They did not exercise any craft except for copying manuscripts, which was assigned to the younger ones, while the elders were devoted exclusively to prayer. Just as was the case with monks in Egypt, no one left his cell, save only for the common prayer, but they ate together, in conformity with the coenobitic exemplar. Later on this community offered many bishops. Martin became very active in mission, mainly in the open country where paganism was still strong. He destroyed pagan temples and in their place he built churches and monasteries.(26) According to Hamman, the influence that the Life of St. Martin exercised can be compared with that of the Life of St. Anthony, and it became the exemplar of medieval hagiographical texts.(27) Martin became also known in the East. Sozomen already refers to him using the Life, while a translation of it in Greek is considered probable, upon which the Greek Life of St. Martin must have been based, a text of the 8th or 9th c. A.D.(28)

St. Athanasius’ and St. Martin’s activity made the ascetics more popular to the aristocratic classes of the West. There begin now systematic visits of the Westerners to the Eastern ascetic loci and as the fourth century was reaching to its end, two Western monasteries were founded in Jerusalem, the one for men and the other for women. According to Jerome, “there exist now learned, powerful and noble people not only among Christians, but mainly among monks”. (29) Petronius came from the famous family of Anicii, with roots in the days of the old Roman democracy, being son of Anicius Petronius Prompus, eparch of the praetorium. He was an ascetic before he was elected bishop of Bologna. From the same family came also St. Benedict and Gregory the Great.(30) There were noblemen among the disciples of St. Martin, Jerome addresses many epistles with spiritual directions to noble widows and virgins who followed the ascetic life. His compatriots Bonosos, Rufin and Chromatius belonged to the circle of Jerome, too. Chromatius presided in a monastery for men in Aquileia. Rufin also belonged to the same ascetical circle in Aquileia, from 368 to 373, when he left to the East.(31)

In 373 Jerome follows Evagrius of Antioch to the East. He was an ascetic for about two years (375-7) in the desert of Chalce, northwest of Antioch, (32) and then he was ordained presbyter.(33) In about 382, returning to Rome, Jerome instructs Marcella to convert her house into a coenobium. Together with Paula in the summer of 385 Jerome returns to the East, where he visits the Holy Lands, then Egypt and finally he settles in Bethlehem. With the financial support of Paula there were founded then the two western monasteries where she and Jerome stayed to the end of their life.(34)

At about 370 the Life of St. Anthony is translated for the second time in Latin by Evagrius of Antioch, the same Evagrius who had lived for many years in Italy and attracted Jerome to the East. Already in his first ascetical period (375-7) Jerome writes the Life of Paul, the supposed first anchorite. The Life of Hilarion, spiritual father of Epiphanius of Salamis, is written between 386-390. (35) At about 390 Jerome writes the Life of Malchus. The three Lives Jerome wrote, as well as his epistle to Eustochium, were translated in Greek already while Jerome lived.(36) After Paula died, in 404, Jerome translates into Latin the Rule of Pachomius, epistles and other texts of the Pachomian circle.(37) Eustochius, daughter of Paula, slept in 419. Jerome in 420. He had asked to be buried beside the two ascetical women.

Rufin stayed in Egypt from 373 to 380 and then he settled at the Mount of Olives until 397, near Melany the elder, a Roman of noble origin who had lost her husband when she was 22 years old. Melany had visited also Nitria and she had met with Rufin there for the first time. (38) Rufin returned to Rome in 397 and in Aquileia in 399. At about 403 he translated chapters of Evagrius of Pontus’ works To the monks and To a virgin, and besides these, the History of the monks in Egypt. Yet before these, and before his devotion to translations of Origen, Rufin offered to the western monasticism the Rules of St. Basil the Great (397).

The text that he used saved an early version of Basil’s work, which contained almost half of the rules now included in the vulgata (203 of 368). It was previously believed that Rufin modified Basil’s work, but Gribomont’s research, comparing the so called small-asceticon with a similar Syrian translation, showed that Rufin’s edition saves the Rules in the form they had before Basil became a bishop. (39) St. Benedict knew St. Basil’s Rules in Rufin’s version.

Melany the younger, grand daughter of Rufin’s friend, and her husband Pinian founded in Tagaste, where Augustine was born, two monasteries, the one with 80 men and the other with 130 women. Melany copied manuscripts with a marked dexterity and speed – as Augustine writes. (40) Her husband became a gardener. They ended in Jerusalem where they separated. In Lausiac history we read that Pinian entered a community of thirty ascetics and went on being a gardener.(41) Melany, who still was below thirty, stayed for 14 years in a cell in the Mount of Olives, and then he built a church and a coenobium with 90 women.(42) The Greek Life of Melany is considered older than the Latin one.(43)

Augustine was baptised by St. Ambrose in 387. In the summer of 388 he went to Tagaste, where he gave his property to the poor and he withdrew with his friends and son in the estate he had from his father. There they devoted themselves to ascetic life. (44)

The way of life of Augustine at that time resembles that of the common exercise of Basil and Gregory in Pontus. It was then that Augustine wrote De vera religione, where he distinguishes between otium desidiae and otium cogitationis, that is, between spiritual calmness and inactivity, and also De moribus ecclesiae Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum. De vera religione was translated in Greek by Prochorus Kydonis. (45) In 391 Augustine was ordained presbyter under the pressure of the people and also urged by Valerius of Hippo. With the financial support of the later he founded a second coenobium.(46) After the return to Tagaste and before he became a bishop, Augustine wrote De diversis quaestionibus octoginta tribus, a work with answers to issues raised by ascetics. In 396 he was ordained bishop of Hippo and he was to remain in this office for the next 34 years, until he slept in 430. At about 397 he wrote his ascetical Rule, although himself did not use this term for any of his ascetical texts.(47) The so called Rule of St. Augustine is the older western rule and, as Lawless notes, it is not only a lifeless text of late antiquity, but it inspires every day more than 150 Christian communities today.(48)

As a bishop Augustine continued to live ascetically and he also ordered his clergy to sell their property and give the money to the poor or to the Church. The bishop’s residence-and-coenobium in which he presided, became a school of bishops and abbots. This was also the case with Eusebius Vercelli and Ambrose, as we have seen, but Augustine was more aware, as is obvious even by the expression monasterium clericorum, which is to be found in one of his late works. (49) The support of monasticism by Fathers as Ambrose or Augustine is even more significant, if we think of the mistrust, if not enmity, of the clergy at large against monasticism, because of the heretical austere trends of the priscillianists.(50)

As a bishop Augustine will found also a monastery for women, the first in north Africa, in which his sister presided. After her death, due to conflicts that happened between the ascetics, Augustine wrote the famous ascetical epistle 211. In the time of Augustine there were founded two monasteries for men, the one under presbyter Leporius and the other under presbyter Eleusinus. (51)

As Basil did, Augustine wanted to connect the unity of soul with poverty, the two elements that characterised the apostolic community in Jerusalem, and this he wanted for the whole Church and not only in the ascetic communities. (52) Yet, while the ascetic writings of Basil’s condemn explicitly and absolutely anchoritic monasticism, Augustine, in spite of the orientation of his thinking towards community life, apologises by answering to certain accusations against anchoritic asceticism. For example, to the assertion, which Basil also made, that anchoritic life is fruitless, Augustine answers that anchorites help us by means of their prayers and their exemplary life.(53) By this remark, Augustine defends the anchoritic exemplar, and yet it wouldn’t be wrong for one to say that in the same time he restrains its position in the Church – contrary to Athanasius, for example. St. Anthony’s Life by Athanasius presents, besides all else, the anchorite as a defender of Orthodoxy, he recognises in him a prophetic and apostolic role. Did Athanasius gave attributes non-existing in Anthony’s life, or, perhaps, anchoritism rejected these elements in order to achieve the greater possible commitment to theory (contemplation)? It’s a fact, that the attitude of anchoritism in Egypt tended to the command, “avoid the bishop as you avoid women”.(54) Even talk about demons, intense in Anthony’s Life, decreases. It is characteristic that the expression “discernment of spirits” (διάκρισις πνευμάτων), since already the 5th c. is being replaced in the ascetic writings by mere discernment (διάκρισις), which regards all matters of ascetic life.(55) The direction that the West, and the East too, was going to follow, is seen in the prevalence of the coenobitic exemplar, its close relationship with the whole life of the Church and even in the (de facto, but also synodically expressed) devaluation of anchoritism.


In the beginnings of the 5th c., the island of Lérins, north of Corsica, near the gulf of Provingia, was empty and, as St. Hilary of Arles writes, inaccessible due to the presence of many snakes. (56) Another young man of noble origin, St. Honoratus, followed the ascetic life and in between 400 and 410, the year Rome fell to the barbarians, came to Lérins with some disciples of his. There were soon more of them gathered around him, especially from Gall, but even from Britain.(57) According to his biographer, Honoratus’ coenobium stressed hospitality and all forms of charity.(58)

It has been wrongly assumed that Lerin’s coenobium followed the Rule of St. Basil, yet there is indeed a kinship between the ascetical teaching of St. Basil and the life in Honoratus’ community, (59) not a great kinship, if we think that in the later there was a combination of coenobitic and anchoritic ascesis, in a central coenobium and nearby cells.(60) Research tends to the view that in Honoratus’ coenobium there was written and applied the so-called Rule of the Four Fathers, and later on the Second Rule of the Fathers.(61) Near the end of 426 Honoratus became bishop of Arles and served in this office for two years until he slept in 429. Lérins’ coenobium gave to the Church many saints, hierarchs and writers. Besides St. Honoratus, the name of whom is the name of the island today, we can also recall Hilary – disciple and biographer of Honoratus who succeeded him in the seat of Arles – St. Caesarius of Arles, St. Eucherius bishop of Lyon and writer of two ascetical works, Salvianus, Vincent of Lérins, etc. St. Patrick, the apostle of Irland, and St. John Cassian, lived for a while in the coenobium of Lérins.(62)


ST. JOHN CASSIAN became first an ascetic in Bethlehem. He was there in about 380, and he stayed till 382. Then he continued his ascesis in Egypt. He was ordained deacon without wanting it (63) by Chrysostom in about 400, and he left Constantinople in 404 or 405, carrying to Rome an epistle of the clergy of the Capital for the exiled Chrysostom.(64) In about 415, already a presbyter,(65) Cassian founded in Marseilles two monasteries, one for men (under the protection of saints Peter and Victor, and the other for women (under the protection St. Soter).(66) That was a period when Provingia had just been free from attacks by Visigoths, attacks, however, that people had not forgotten and in which ascetics suffered too. Matters of theodicy prevailed under such circumstances,(67) yet not so much with the intention for God’s will to be approached, as for monasticism to be condemned. Under fierce political conditions and into an environment full of suspicion against monasticism, Cassian offered Gall for the first time a theory of monasticism.(68)

Cassian didn’t begin to write when he founded the two monasteries in Marseilles. It was about 420 when Castor, the bishop of Apte, asked him to help in organising the coenobium which he was going to found in his bishopric. (69) Cassian corresponded by writing 12 books De institutis coenobiorum et de octo principalium vitiorum remediis. It is obvious that the four books of the Instituta (70) are distinguished from the rest eight books (on the principal sins),(71) as also Cassian himself says: “Nam post quattuor libellos, qui super institutis monasteriorum digesti sunt, nunc arripere conluctationem adversus octo principalia vitia”.(72) Those four books exercised major influence in the old western ascetic Rules, and probably in the 7th c. in Spain they were arranged to form a text known as Cassian’s Rule.(73) Their influence in the East was significant too. Instituta were translated in the 5th c. in Greek and with that translation as a base there was formed a summary in two books, known to Photius, having the name of Athanasius the Great as its author.(74) Another summary is saved under the name of St. Neilus.(75)

The composition of De Institutis was followed by Collationes, a series of talks Cassian and his friend Germanus had with ascetics in Egypt. The arabic translation of the Collationes, saved in a manuscript of the 9th c., was made from a Greek prototype. (76)

Cassian called the ascetics that he met in Egypt, Fathers and Saints. (77) He valued highly the ascesis in Egypt and saw it as an organic part of the Eastern tradition, a tradition which, in his opinion, western monasticism should adopt in order to avoid anarchy.(78) He distinguished the anchoritic exemplar, but he saw in it such a danger, that he ended by seeing it as an inferior way compared with coenobitic monasticism. The exemplar of the coenobitic ascesis which Cassian recommended to the West, was the (quasi military) coenobium of Pachomius and not the coenobium of St. Basil. Moreover, Cassian keeps many anchoritic elements even when he seems to promote coenobitic ascesis.


St. Patrick was from Britain. 16 years old he was kidnapped and sold as a slave in Ireland, but 6 years after he managed to escape. He owes his religious education to St. Martin of Tours, St. Honoratus and most of all to Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, whom he also escorted in his mission to Britain. After a recommendation by Germanus, Pope Celestin I tasked Patrick with converting Ireland. Patrick arrived in Ireland in 433 and stayed to his death in 461. There is no mention of his founding monasteries, but he cared to create and organise clergy. According to his biographer, Patrick ordained in Ireland 350 bishops. Even if this is an exaggeration, it reveals at least the orientation of Patrick’s work. (79) Himself was living as an ascetic and this is the kind of organisation that he gave to the Church in Ireland.(80) In his Confession Patrick expresses to God his admiration, how it happened and in Ireland, those who never knew God and always adored the idols, have now become a people of God and they are named sons of God. How happened, and the sons and the daughters of the kings of Ireland have been transformed to monks and virgins of Christ.(81) Finally, we have to note that monasticism in Ireland is characterised until today by excessive austerity.


THE SIXTH century of western asceticism will be the age of Caesarius of Arles, Aurelius, Eugippius, St. Columba, St. Columbanus, Cassiodorus, the Rule of the Master and mainly the Rule of St. Benedict, the only western Rule, besides Cassian’s Instituta, that seems to have exercised some influence in the East too, since it was used by St. Athanasius the Athonite in the 10th century. (82) From the 5th to the 6th c., that is, from Augustine to the Rule of Paul and Stephen, we have in the West 15 coenobitic Rules. If we separate the Ordo monasterii from Praeceptum, the Instituta from Collationes, the Rules to men from the Rules to women of Caesarius and Aurelius, then we have 19 western Rules – without the Latin editions of Basilian and Pachomian texts.(83) In spite of its influence, even Regula Benedicti never brought the oneness that both Cassian and Rufin desired when they transferred to the West the ascetical traditions of the East. Differentiation increases with the founding of monastic Orders. This variety, until today, of the western monasticism, explains the (hyperbolic of course) assertion of some scholars, that in the East, after St. Basil, we can’t really talk about a history of monasticism, but only about historical circumstances under which the various monasteries were being founded.

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NOTES

1. - Cassian, C XVIII.5

2. - "verum etiam his the characteristics of the Jerusalem apostolic community.- multo sublimiora cumulaverant" (Inst. II.5).

3. - Aumann, "Origins of monasticism", p. 6.

4. - Ignatius, Epistle to Polycarp 5.

5. - Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4.8.3.

6. - Ignatius, Epistle to the Romans, 3, 4, 6, 8.

7. - Irenaeus, Fragments 11. This expression, as is known, comes from Orphism and Plato.

8. - Ignatius, Epistle to Polycarp 5.

9. - Loveren says that "Origen was the first to apply this image to the ascetic life" ("Once again: ‘The Monk..., p. 537). Cf. Origen, Exhortatory to Martyrdom 21.

10. - Butler, "St. Anthony".

11. - PG 26, 844.

12. - Cf. Jerome, Epistle 22.

13. - St. Athanasius, Life of St. Anthony, PG 26, 835.

14. - Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 289.

15. - We should note that from the wider area of Rome comes also the Rule of Paul and Stephen, which was written by the end of the 6th c. and returns to older traditions. Cf. Règles Monastiques..., p. 25.

16. - Hamman, "Western Monasticism", p. 26.

17. - Breviar. Romanum, die 16 Decemb., in Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 289.

18. - Papadopoulos, Patrology, v. II, p. 256.

19. - Lawless, Augustine of Hippo..., p. 42.

20. - Loughlin, "St. Ambrose".

21. - Jerome, Epistle 22.

22. - Löffler, "St. Paulinus....

23. - Lienhard, Paulinus of Nola..., p. 152

24. - Papadopoulos, Patrology II, p. 243.

25. - Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini 10.

26. - Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini; Article "Μαρτῖνος" in, ΘΗΕ 8, Athens 1966, στ. 780-782; Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism, pp. 13-14.

27. - Hamman, "Writers of Gaul", pp. 540-1.

28. - Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., pp. 203-4

29. - Jerome, Epistle 24.

30. - Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 293.

31. - Gribomont,"The translations..., p. 247.

32. - Saltet, "St. Jerome".

33. - Gribomont,"The translations..., p. 214.

34. - Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism, p. 15.

35. - Gribomont,"The translations..., p. 237.

36. - Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., p. 205.

37. - Gribomont,"The translations..., p. 218.

38. - Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism, p. 14.

39. - Gribomont, Histoire du texte..., p. 323.

40. - Augustine, Epistle 225, referred by Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 316.

41. - Palladius, Lausiac 121, referred by Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 317.

42. - Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 317.

43. - Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., p. 206.

44. - Portalié, "Life of St. Augustine....

45. - Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., p. 207.

46. - Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 330.

47. - Lawless George, Augustine of Hippo, p. 60 and 123

48. - Lawless, Augustine of Hippo..., p. xii.

49. - Augustine, Sermo 355.2.

50. - Kelly, "The Gallic Resistance..., p. 506 ff.

51. - Lawless, Augustine of Hippo..., p. 62.

52. - Lawless, Augustine of Hippo..., p. 59.

53. - See Augustine, De morib. 1338: "uidentur enim nonnullis res humanas plus quam oporteret deseruisse, non intelligentibus quantum nobis eorum animus in orationibus prosit, et uita ad exemplum, quorum corpora uidere non sinimur".

54. - See Inst. XI.18.

55. - Lienhard, "‘Discernment..., p. 521.

56. - Montalembert, The monks of the West..., p. 347.

57. - Besse, "Abbey of Lérins".

58. - Terrade, Hilarius of Arles’...

59. - Terrade, Hilarius of Arles’...

60. - Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism, p. 15.

61. - Règles Monastiques..., p. 24.

62. - Besse, "Abbey of Lérins".

63. - Inst. XI.18, and Chadwick, John Cassian, p. 30.

64. - Olphe-Galliard, "Cassien", 214, Chadwick, John Cassian, p. 32.Chitty, The desert a city..., pp. 59-60. Cf. Inst. praef. 3 and Sozomenus, Eccl. History 8.26.8.

65. - He was ordained by Innocent I in Rome, or from Procolus in Marseilles. Chadwick says that the second case is more probable (John Cassian, p. 33).

66. - Olphe-Galliard, "Cassien", 217.

67. - "And in the abbey of St Victor puzzled enquirers came to Cassian to ask why God permitted righteous monks to die at the hands of barbarians" (See Chadwick, John Cassian, p. 34 and the author’s references to Salvianus, De Gub. I.I and C VI.3. As Chadwick writes, "Monks and nuns certainly suffered during the invasions".

68. - Chadwick, John Cassian, p. 36 and 29. Cf. Hamman, "Writers of Gaul", p. 518: "The Institutiones and the Conlationes are the magna charta of monastic life in the West.-. Through these, Cassian brought the contribution of the method and experience of Eastern monasticism to the improvisations of Gallic monasticism". Cassian is honored as a saint only in the East (February 29) and in N. France (July 2). This happened because his teaching was considered in the West as semi-pelagianism. Decretum Gelasianum mentions the works of Cassian "undoubtedly because of the Conferences; in particular book 13 and the presentation or prevarication. In the line of Clement, Origen, Chrysostom and Hilary, Cassian permits prevarication in order to avoid a greater evil (Conl. 17, 17) while Augustine and Aquinas defend the opposite thesis" (See Hamman, "Writers of Gaul", p. 516).

69. - It was forty miles north of Marseilles. Castor was the first who wanted to found there a monastery (cf. Chadwick, John Cassian, p. 37.

70. - They are, according to Chadwick, "the nearest which Cassian came to a rule, like the Rule of St Pachomius or the Rule of St Benedict ... so far as Cassian provided a rule for Castor or any other monastery, it is contained in these four books" (John Cassian, pp. 41-2).

71. - They are exactly the sins Evagrius had described (see PG 40, 1272-1276; cf. St. Neilus, On the eight spirits of evil, PG 79, 1146. Cf. also Hamman, "Writers of Gaul", p. 514). Cassian’s books on the eight sins are likewise dedicated to Castor. The supposed epistle of Castor to Cassian (PL 49, 53-54) is not authentic – see Hamman, "Writers of Gaul", loc.cit.

72. - Inst. V.1. Cf. Hamann, p. 514· "the second part, De octo principalium vitiorum remediis (5-12) soon became detached as a separate work and is not contained in the two oldest manuscripts (Monte Cassino and Autun, saec. VII)".

73. - Vogüé, Les Règles Monastiques..., p. 54-5.

74. - Πρὸς Κάστορα τὸν μακαριώτατον περὶ τῶν κανονικῶν τῶν κοινοβίων διατυπώσεων (PG 28, 849-905, and cod. Vindobon. graec theol. 121· cf. Hamann, pp. 514-5).

75. - Περὶ τῶν ὀκτὼ τῆς κακίας λογισμῶν (PG 79, 1435-1463; cf. Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., p. 213-4).

76. - Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., p. 214.

77. - Inst. praef. 3. It is considered very probable that he also met Evagrius of Pontus (cf. Chadwick, John Cassian, p. 26). However, it is certain that not only was he influenced by him, he actually read writings of his.

78. - Inst. praef. 2, where the "disciplinae" and the "instituta" of the "Easterners and the Egyptians" (Orientalium et Aegyptiorum) are presented as the highest human knowledge, superior to which is only the divine wisdom. (Cf. Inst. praef. 3· "Orientalium maximeque Aegyptiorum").

79. - Cf. Moran, "St. Patrick".

80. - See Daly, Benedictine monasticism..., p. 56.

81. - See St. Patrick, Confession.

82. - Dekkers, "Les traductions grecques..., p. 214.

83. - 12 more Rules appear in the 7th c. (Vogüé, Les Règles Monastiques..., p. 13-4).

---

Bibliography


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-Butler, "St. Anthony" =Butler E. C., "St. Anthony"· The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913, at http://www.knight.org/advent/.

-C = Johannes Cassianus, Conlationes, ed. Dom E. Pichery, SC42.

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Ioannis M. Konidaris The Mount Athos Avaton

Ioannis M. Konidaris
The Mount Athos Avaton
From: The Mount Athos Avaton, εκδ. Εκδόσεις Α. Σάκκουλας, Athens 2003.


The author is Prof. of Ecclesiastical Law at Athens Univ., and Secretary General for Religious Affairs at the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs of Greece.


I

During the 15 September 1997 meeting of the EC Council of Ministers for Foreign Affairs, the then Greek Minister for Foreign Affairs Th. Pangalos, responding to the expressed wish of the Athonite monks, attempted to have the unilateral "Declaration by Greece concerning the Declaration on the status of churches and non-confessional organisations", annexed to the final Act of the Amsterdam Treaty, adopted as a Joint Declaration by all 15 member-states. By virtue of the 1997 Declaration, the content of the joint declaration on Mount Athos annexed to the Final Act of the Treaty of Accession of the Hellenic Republic (1979) to the European Communities is recalled and renewed.
[...]

This occasion provides a good opportunity for a comprehensive overview of the issue of the Mount Athos avaton, a subject often debated without due scrutiny and consideration.

II

a. […] Τhe prohibition of men's entry and sojourn in convents and the prohibition of women's entry and sojourn in monasteries, that is, the avaton in its strict sense, is a very old concept deriving from the very essence of the monastic movement, especially since the abandonment of every material pleasure by the first anchorites included sexual continence in the broadest sense.
[…]
III

The avaton principle has been faithfully observed by all the Monasteries of Mount Athos without exception ever since they were founded. Α brief introduction to the status of Mount Athos would perhaps be useful at this point.

Pursuant to Article 105 of the 1975/1986/2001 Greek Constitution, the Athos peninsula, beyond Megali Vigla, and constituting the region of Mount Athos (Holy Mountain/ Άγιον 'Ορος), is, in accordance with its ancient privileged status, a self-governed part of the Greek State, whose sovereignty thereon remains intact.

On Mount Athos there exist a total of twenty sovereign Monasteries, which are legal entities of public law. Attached to them, as dependencies are other monastic establishments, such as sketes, kellia, kalyves etc., with no separate legal personality.

The Monasteries of Mount Athos, which are all coenobitic again today, are directly subject to the spiritual jurisdiction of the Oecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Mount Athos is also supervised by the Greek State through the Governor of Mount Athos, appointed by presidential decree on a recommendation from the Minister for Foreign Affairs and having, according to the new Internal Regulation of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the rank and remuneration of the Secretary General of a Region.

Within Mount Athos, there is a clear distinction between the administration of the monastic community of the twenty Monasteries and the administration of each Monastery.

The administration of the entire Mount Athos is exercised by the Holy Community, which consists of twenty members representatives of the twenty Monasteries, with its seat at the capital municipality of Karyes. These representatives are elected pursuant to each Monastery's By-Law and hold office for one year. The executive authority is exercised by the four-member Holy Epistasia, i.e. representatives chosen by rotation on the basis of a tetrad system: the twenty Monasteries are divided into five tetrads, with one of the five senior Athonite Monasteries as the first member of each tetrad. Each tetrad in turn takes over the Holy Epistasia for a year, headed by a member of the senior monastery of the tetrad as chief monk, the Protepistates (or Protos, i.e. first elder).

The supreme administrative organ, meeting twice a year, namely fifteen days after Easter and on 20 August, is the extraordinary twenty-member Holy Assembly, consisting of the Abbots of the twenty Monasteries.

Each one of the Holy Monasteries of Mount Athos is administered by the Abbot, the Assembly of the Elders and the Abbot's Council. The abbot is elected by secret ballot for a life term of office by all the members of the brotherhood, who have completed at least six years after their tonsure. The Assembly of Elders is elected for a life term of office according to the provisions of the internal organisation of each Monastery. Finally, the Abbot's Council consists of two or three members, depending on the provisions of each Monastery's internal organisation, and is elected every year by the Assembly of Elders from among its members.

Within the Mount Athos territory, only the twenty Holy Monasteries have the right of ownership. The entire peninsula of Athos is divided among them and its territory is exempt from expropriation, according to express constitutional provision (Article 105 of the Constitution). The monastic brotherhood attends to the administration of the movable and immovable property of the Monasteries, which is, however, exercised by the Abbot and the Abbot's Council.

IV

[…]

b. The customary origin of the avaton is also confirmed in the legislation in force, namely Article 186 of the Constitutional Charter of Mount Athos (1924), effective since 1926 through its ratification by the Greek State by the Legislative Decree of 10/16 September 1926. According to this provision of the Constitutional Charter, the entry of females in the Athos peninsula is, according to the ancient custom, forbidden. However, from the point of view of public law, this provision was a lex imperfecta, since it did not provide for sanctions in the event of violation. Only the measure of deportation from the Mount Athos territory could be taken against a woman violating the avaton.

However, this provision was subsequently complemented by a law penalising the violation of the avaton, as a result of the disembarkation of several ladies on the Mount Athos territory during the 9th International Congress of Byzantine Studies, convened in April 1953 in Thessalonica. Legislation Decree 2623/1953 stipulated that the violation of the avaton incurs a penalty of imprisonment for a period between two months to one year, which, according to the general provisions of the Penal Code, can now be commuted into a pecuniary penalty.
[…]

V

We shall now proceed with the discussion of the possible reservations that have been raised from time to time as to constitutionality of the legal provision establishing the Mount Athos avaton. […].

A first superficial approach might lead to the conclusion that the prohibition of women's entry into the Mount Athos territory contravenes the principle of equality and/or constitutes a restriction of personal freedom. Both the principle of freedom and free movement of persons are enshrined not only in the Constitution of Greece, but also in many international treaties that have been ratified by Greece and constitute an integral part of Greek law and, what is more, prevail over any opposite provision of law as prescribed by the Constitution.
a. The principle of equality, enshrined in Article 4 of the Constitution, obligates the legislator to treat in an equal or similar manner all Greek citizens under the same or similar conditions and prohibits any favourable or unfavourable treatment of the same by way of exception from the general rule.

However, the principle of equality does not preclude the different statutory regulation of dissimilar or different cases, or cases occurring under different or special conditions. On the contrary, in such cases different treatment is imperative, because various special reasons, social, economic, religious etc., fully justify different treatment, provided that such different treatment is objective and is based on general and impersonal criteria.

Such is the case with the avaton. All women are forbidden entry in Mount Athos, without any exception. There would be a case of violation of the principle of equality, only if specific categories of women or only women meeting some specific criteria were allowed entry.
b. Personal freedom, which according to Article 5 paragraph 3 of the Constitution is inviolable, is not unlimited - as indeed is the case with any other individual right. The Constitution expressly mentions that freedom of movement may be restricted, when and as stipulated by law.

Naturally, such restrictions on personal freedom and particularly the free movement of any person cannot be arbitrary. They should be justified by sufficient reasons serving the general public or social interest and it is up to the courts to examine whether such conditions concur.

So, as none has ever thought of contesting the constitutionality of other restrictions on the free movement of persons, such as the prohibition of entry into military areas or the prohibition of hunting or fishing in several areas or during certain seasons etc., for the same legal reason there is no violation of the Constitution in the case of the avaton.
[…]

Father Seraphim of Vyritsa

 

 

The Holy and Venerable Father Seraphim of Vyritsa

by giwargis on June 20, 2010

in Articles

St. Seraphim of Vyritsa (Vasily Nikolaevich Muraviov) was born on March 31(OS)/April 13(NS), 1866. He was baptized two weeks after his birth with the name Vasily (Basil) after the Venerable Father Basil the New Confessor. He received an excellent education, got married, and was a very successful businessman. He had a son named Nikolai. When Nikolai grew up, both his parents – Vasily and Olga – by agreement decided to enter monasteries.
On 13 September 1920 Vasily Muraviov joined Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg. It was here that Vasily Murianov cultivated his divine zeal for 45 years.
On 19 October 1920 with the blessing of Vladyka Benjamin, Archimandrite Nikolay Yarushevich tonsured both Vasily and Olga – Vasily with the name Barnabas after his and Olga’s Spiritual Father, Venerable Elder Barnabas, and his wife Olga with the name of Christiana was tonsured at Voskresensky Novo-Devichy Monastery. The first obedience of Monk Barnabas was as a bell ringer. Very soon he was ordained hierodeacon and a manager of the cemetery chancery.
It was the time of the Civil War in Russia. They had one panikhida (memorial service at the church) after another, and Monk Barnabas’ first spiritual school of guidance was to listen and to comfort people.
On 11 September 1921 Archbishop Benjamin ordained Barnabas to be a hieromonk. Persecution against faithful people continued in Russia and none of the monks going to the church in the morning knew if they would return to their cells at night. Already very many people at that time were trying to attend the services when Hieromonk Barnabas was serving. His face during Divine Liturgies was enlightened with joy. His sermons were very sincere, simple and came across to various people. His podvig (selfless devotion) as a former merchant in the world was a reason for this.
Soon after that and before becoming Elder and Spiritual Father of St. Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Fr.Barnabas was tonsured into the Great Schema with the name Seraphim, after St. Seraphim of Sarov. Olga Muraviov, Nun Christiana, later received the Great Schema with the name Seraphima.

There was a mystical connection between Vasily Muravieov and two Holy Fathers – his Spiritual Father the Venerable Elder Barnabas and St. Seraphim of Sarov, who Vasily was named after during his monastic life. In the writings of Elder Barnabas you can find a place where he mentions one of his spiritual children V.N.M (Initials for Vasily Nikolaevich Muraviov) who saw a beautiful dream:
“I was walking to the services at St. Nicholas’ Monastery through the forest trying to find the path. Suddenly I saw an Elder with a sack behind his shoulder and small axe. I asked him if he knew how to get to St. Nicholas’ Monastery and the Elder answered: ‘Let’s go, I will show you. I am going there myself.’ I looked at this Elder more closely and recognized St. Seraphim of Sarov in him and asked: ‘Batyushka, are you Father Seraphim?’ The Elder answered: ‘Yes, I am Seraphim’, and they continued to walk. Fr. Seraphim stopped near a small stump, sat on it, and put his sack and axe on the ground. I sat near him. Suddenly, from another side very unexpectedly appeared Father Barnabas and he sat near me so I was between both Elders, who were very joyful, and gave hugs and kisses to each other and started to talk, but I couldn’t understand what they talked about and awoke….”
When Vasily told about his dream to his Elder Barnabas, the Elder laughed: “You were sitting between us, hearing everything and couldn’t understand what we talked about?”
Already at the end of the 1920′s Elder Seraphim was well known as a healer. One demon possessed woman was healed right after Elder Seraphim said a prayer above her head and annointed her with holy oil from his lamp.
Hieroschemamonk Seraphim was the spiritual Father of St. Alexander Nevsky Lavra for almost 3 years. He had so many people coming for confessions to him that sometimes he could spend two days hearing confessions while standing on a cold stone floor, without any break. But Fr. Seraphim didn’t think about himself. Of course such physical and spiritual stresses (how much grief of so many people he would take on himself!) soon turned to serious health problems. Soon doctors diagnosed intercostal neuralgia, rheumatism and venous congestion of legs. For a long time Fr. Seraphim didn’t tell anyone about it and continued to serve. And there was always such a bright and joyful smile on his face that no one from the brotherhood could think that their Elder was having such physical pain. Only his voice sometimes would get very quite. One day however Father Seraphim just couldn’t get up from his bed.
Father Seraphim accepted his illness with humility as a new obedience. He was glorifying God’s name: “I am a sinner and don’t deserve even this illness. There are so many people who suffer from more terrible illnesses!” Doctors prescribed a change of climate, but Fr. Seraphim knew about the dark times coming for the brotherhood and wanted to share the sufferings with them. God had a different plan for him however.
Metropolitan Seraphim (Chichagov), a medical doctor by education, studied the illness history of Fr. Seraphim and immediately blessed him to move to Vyritsa. By the summer of the 1930′s Elder Seraphim left the Blessed City of the Apostle Peter, as they call St. Petersburg. With the blessing of the Metropolitan, Schemanun Seraphima (in the world Olga Ivanovna Muraviova) and their twelve year old granddaughter Margarita, who was a young novice of Voskresensky Novodevichiy Monastery and would often visited Fr. Seraphim at Alexander Nevsky Lavra, went to him by obedience to help and take care of him.

Soon a bloody wave of repressions drenched the entire Petersburg Diocese. During the night of 18 February 1932 the Bolsheviks arrested more than five hundred monks. Monasteries were completely devastated. It often has happened in Church history that during the most vicious times of persecution for the Orthodox Faith, God sends special men of God who are keepers of the purity of Orthodoxy. In the 30′s-40′s the Venerable Father Seraphim of Vyritsa became one of them. At that time he was writing poems as prophesies about the future of Russia. These poems were memorized by very many people, and reached prisons and camps. He was very ill at that time, but at Vyritsa he already didn’t go to the doctors saying: “May God’s will be for everything. Illness is a school of humility, where you really learn about your weakness.” Soon streams of people embarked for Vyritsa. Many people gathered at the Elders’s cell for days and nights. When his relatives worried about him and his health condition, Elder Seraphim answered them: “Now I always will be ill. While I can raise my hand to bless people, I will be meeting with them.”
Father Seraphim always invited first those people who needed him the most. Every time a lay-sister would come out and call someone by their name and hometown, where this person was standing and where he/she came from. It was a mystery how the Elder could know all these things.
For very many people Fr. Seraphim was a benefactor who helped them not only spiritually, but with practical advice, helping them to find jobs and money through kind people. Very often he would thankfully accept money from his visitors, but Fr. Seraphim gave this money right away to those who had need of it. If some people gave him some clothes, Fr. Seraphim always found someone to give them to.
Elder Seraphim was always very strict with himself. He was always in fasting, all-night vigils, and prayer. On Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays the Elder didn’t eat any food at all. Sometimes he didn’t eat any food for several days. People who were around him sometimes thought that he starved himself to the death. It is difficult to call food what he ate in those days: in some days he ate part of prosphora and drank some holy water. At other days he didn’t eat even one potato, and would eat some grated carrot. Very seldom did he drink a cup of tea with a very little piece of bread. Priests from the church of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God at Vyritsa gave him Holy Communion every day.
Imitating his heavenly teacher, Venerable Father Seraphim of Sarov, he undertook a new podvig on himself. He would pray in the garden on his knees on the rock before the icon of the Wonderworker of Sarov. This was happening in those days when his health was very bad. The first testimonies of St. Seraphim of Vyritsa praying on the rock are from 1935, when the persecutors descended upon the Church again. For ten years the Elder endured this podvig. In truth it was martyrdom in the name of love for his neighbors. With many hot tears the Holy Elder was praying to God asking revival for the Russian Orthodox Church and for the salvation of the whole world.
People really didn’t know when he was sleeping. Every time when someone opened the door of his cell they found him on his knees crying and praying with his hands to the sky, not noting anything around him.
Fr. Seraphim had many visitors. Many times in the 30′s Chekists [Bolshevik secret police] came to his cell searching his things. Once the Chekists came to arrest the Elder, but people who lived with Fr. Seraphim in the house asked to call for the doctor to confirm his heath condition. When the doctor came he confirmed that the health of Fr. Seraphim was in very serious condition and didn’t allow them to move him to another place. Another time, when the Chekists came again, Fr. Seraphim’s love won them over. Sudden spiritual change in the soul of the man in charge brought them to leave the house without touching the humble Elder.
Lions were obedient to the venerable fathers Anthony the Great and Zosima, bears to St. Sergius of Radonezh and Seraphim of Sarov. And the most cruel cruel animals in the form of humans were obedient to Fr. Seraphim of Vyritsa.
In 1941 Nikolai Muraviov, son of Fr. Seraphim, was arrested and executed. New grief came into the Elder’s life.
Fr. Seraphim knew about the upcoming Second World War and the horrible years of it for Russia. When Nazis attacked Russia, Fr. Seraphim started to pray on the rock in his garden every day. In 1941 Fr. Seraphim was 72 years old and his health was bad, and his relatives would help him walk to that rock, and sometimes they just carried him there. Those close to him asked him to stop this praying on the rock, as they saw how hard it was for him physically. They put the icon on a young apple tree near that rock. He would pray on the rock as long as he could. Sometimes an hour, sometimes two, sometimes several hours. It was impossible to look at his sufferings without tears. They asked him to stop this podvig and pray at his cell, but he didn’t have mercy on himself. God himself helped him to do this podvig! This continued during all four war years for Russia.
It is a known fact, according to the words of the Elder himself, that not one house at Vyritsa was destroyed during that war. And no one man from Vyritsa was killed. Another miracle was that when Nazis were ready to occupy Vyritsa, they sent there those soldiers who were Orthodox Romanians. And if the Church of Kazan Icon of the Mother of God was closed, but, Glory to God!, not devastated in 1938 by the Bolsheviks, it was opened again by the very many requests of the people. In the beginning people were feeling very uncomfortable at the church, having occupants in Nazis uniform standing next to them, but after seeing that they prayed and crossed themselves as it is required by the church, they stopped worrying.
When Nazis heard about the prophecies of the Elder they also went to visit him. And as before with the Chekist’s, Fr. Seraphim could disarm uninvited visitors with the help from above. First of all they were amazed when he greeted them with his good German that he had learned from the years when he was a merchant and would often visit Berlin and Vienna, working with German and Austrian companies. One Nazi asked him when Germans will take Petersburg. The Elder answered that this will never happen and Germans will be leaving Russia soon, and the man who asked this question would not return home alive and be killed near Warsaw. One of those Romanian officer’s visited Vyritsa in the 1980′s to venerate the Elder’s grave. He found people who lived in Vyritsa during the war and confirmed the destiny of the man who had asked that question.

In 1945 Schemanun Seraphima (Olga Nikolaevna Muraviova, wife of Vasily Muraviov, the future St. Seraphim of Vyritsa) reposed. Fr. Seraphim knew and talked about how the separation is not for too long and soon they will meet in eternal life.
During the last years of his life Elder Seraphim was bedridden. The hour of his repose was revealed to him. Day’s before this he blessed his home-folks with icons of the revered Seraphim of Sarov and told Mother Seraphima, his keleinica (lay-sister), to be mindful of her ribs during his funeral. (This warning was prophetic – during the funeral, since because of the very big crowd of people in attendance, Mother Seraphima had two of her ribs broken.)
Early in the morning the Most Holy Theotokos was revealed to him in splendor. With her right hand she pointed up to the sky. Elder Seraphim told about this to his home-folks and said: “Today I can’t recieve visitors”, and blessed to call Fr. Alexey Kibardin. The Akathists to the Most Holy Theotokos, St. Nicholas and St. Seraphim of Sarov were read. After taking Holy Communion Elder Seraphim blessed to have read the Psalter and the Holy Gospel. Closer to the evening Batyushka asked to put him on the chair and he started to pray. During prayer he sometimes asked what time it was. Around 2 o’clock after midnight he blessed to have read a prayer for the departure of the soul, then crossed himself with the words, “Lord, save and have mercy on the whole world!”, he departed for the heavenly dwelling place.
For three days an unending stream of people visited the coffin of the Elder. Everybody noticed that the Elder’s hands were very soft and warm, as if he was alive. Some people could smell a fragrance near his coffin.
On the first day after Elder Seraphim’s repose a blind girl was healed. Her mother brought her to his coffin and said: “Kiss the hand of grandfather.” Soon after that the girl started to see.
There were three big choirs during the honorable burial of St. Seraphim of Vyritsa: of Kazan, of Peter and Paul at Vyritsa, and of the Theological Academy and Seminary. On that day, with the blessing of Metropolitan Gregory of St. Petersburg, classes at the Academy and Seminary were cancelled. One of the students who was standing near the coffin of the Elder was the future Patriarch of Russia Alexey II.
The Holy and Venerable Father Seraphim of Vyritsa reposed on April 3rd, 1949.
Holy Father Seraphim, Pray to God for us!
V.P. Philimonov, Magazine “Tserkovny Vestnik”
Translated by Mira Parker

Translator’s Note: A Miracle of St. Seraphim of Vyritsa
Here you go… I am here in America translating this very interesting article about St.Seraphim of Vyritsa during the last few weeks, going through very many photographs, details of his life, his icons, etc. Vyritsa is near St. Petersburg, and I was reading how St. Seraphim was praying during WW2 for all the soldiers, for Russia, for the whole world, and how he told Romanian Nazis who came to ask questions that Germans will never take Leningrad…
I am moved…
Doing all this work, I remember about my uncle, who I never met, who was killed during WW2 near Leningrad (St. Petersburg). My family didn’t know where his grave is, and when it happened. Mom said that in 1943 they received a telegram about how he disappeared. This is my Mom’s older brother. My mom told me this story many times. His wife was very beautiful and never got married again, because she was waiting for him to come back home. My grandmother was waiting for him throughout all her life. His daughter grew up not remembering him.
So… I am reading and at some moment I thought: “My uncle was there at war, when St. Seraphim of Vyritsa was praying on the rock during 1000 days. My uncle was so close to that place… It would be nice to find his grave one day…” I know that my relatives tried to do it before, but didn’t have any success.
I sent my translation to John Sanidopoulos, who wants to publish it on his blog. And on the next day (yesterday) my Mom called me and said they found on the Internet where my uncle was buried in January 1943 near St. Petersburg. In a mass grave.
She told me about it and I remembered one of the photographs of St. Seraphim of Vyritsa, that I like so much. I knew that it was him who helped. You know, I was thinking about him during these few weeks a lot, about his life, his family, his wife, his podvig. And during several years I was praying for my uncle, who I never met. And now his daughter is going to visit his grave this month.
It didn’t happen before. It didn’t happen a month or a week after. It happened right at that time when I was reading, translating and thinking about him here, in America, and my relatives started again to look for information about my uncle at THIS time, being there, at Kazakhstan. Isn’t this a MIRACLE?
Glory to God for All Things!

Sermon among the “dragon”

 

 

Sermon among the “dragon”

by OCP on July 4, 2011

in Articles,Featured Article

Consecration of the new crop of tea (performed by Fr Dionisy Pozdnyaev). Photos courtesy of Archpriest Dionisy Pozdnyaev

Vladislav Maltsev
English translation by Katherine Ilachinski
6/4/2011
Click here to buy Books on Orthodoxy in Chinese and English published in Hong Kong
Sermon among the “dragon”
In Asia, the foreign priests of ROC more than anywhere else feel like missionaries
The Russian Orthodox Church plans to revive the Orthodox mission and church-parish organization in China. On March 15 the chairman of the Department for External Church Relations Metropolitan Hilarion (Alphaeus) said about this: “Today the Orthodox Christians of China suffer from a lack of priests and regular worship. The Russian Orthodox Church as the Mother Church is interested in the restoration of the Chinese Autonomous Orthodox Church (CAOC). At this stage, our church is ready to provide comprehensive assistance to the Chinese faithful, and especially in the emergence of Chinese priests.” It is known that in China there are about 15 thousand Orthodox Christians, mostly descendants of Russian immigrants, or those Chinese baptized in the pre-revolutionary days, a country with a billion inhabitants there are only four officially registered CAOC parishes.
To the questions about the organization and the parish life of the Russian Orthodox Church, not only in China but throughout East Asia, the rector of the Orthodox Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Hong Kong and chairman of the eponymous Orthodox Brotherhood Archpriest Dionisy Pozdnyaev responds to the journalist of “NGR” Vladislav Maltsev.
— Currently where and how in East Asia are the Russian Orthodox Church and other Orthodox Churches represented?
— The parishes of Russian Orthodox Church today are in major East Asian cities: Tokyo, Pyongyang, Ulan Bator, Bangkok, Singapore, Jakarta, Hong Kong, Pattaya. Also there are regular worship conducted in the temples on the territory of Russian diplomatic missions in Beijing and Shanghai. Recently they opened an Orthodox monastery in Ratchaburi (Thailand). Unfortunately, the ROC does not yet have their educational institutions in East Asia.
It is worth noting that the ROC does not have separate dioceses in the region. All parishes are administered by the Foreign Parishes of the Moscow Patriarchate, although, of course, there are regular contacts between parishes in East Asia and the dioceses of the ROC in Siberia and the Far East. For comparison: the Patriarchate of Constantinople, whose congregations are in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong, East Asia, established three major canonical diocese – Hong Kong metropolis, Singapore diocese and the Korean metropolis.
In addition to the parishes of the ROC, in East Asia there are two autonomous Orthodox Churches under the jurisdiction of the Moscow Patriarchate – Japanese and Chinese, some ROCOR parishes (recognizing the union with the Moscow Patriarchate) in South Korea and Indonesia.
Of the other local Orthodox Churches there is the parish of the Romanian Patriarchate in Japan, for the Romanians living in that country. Contrary to what is sometimes claimed in Russia, there are no Antiochian Orthodox parishes in the Philippines yet, although there are plans to create them.
— How is interaction possible – competition with parishes of other Orthodox Patriarchates in the region?

— I would not talk about the competition – after all the Church in various jurisdictions are divided only administratively. In dogmatic, ecclesiological sense, we are a single body of the Orthodox Church. In many countries there are different forms of cooperation – Romanian hierodeacon serves the parishes of the Moscow Patriarchate in Thailand, and a Russian priest serves in the parish of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in Seoul. Orthodoxy is not a property of the Greek or Russian – so in Asia, where Christians are a minority, we are relying on the historical tradition of presence in the region closest to the countries of East Asia, the Russian Orthodox Church, and try together to bear witness of Orthodoxy.
— What represents the Orthodox congregation in Hong Kong and — more broadly – in East Asia at the nationality level?
— The congregation of the Orthodox Church in this region is multinational, and its social composition is non-uniform. This allows considering the Orthodox Church in various countries of East Asia, as the Church, open to all – without national, linguistic or social barriers. In Constantinople, and the Moscow Patriarchate there is an understanding that in East Asia, Orthodoxy has primarily missionary character. In my opinion, the task of pastoral care for the compatriots in East Asia is temporary in nature – there are not formed stable Diaspora of traditionally Orthodox nations. Most often, foreigners do not live in Asia constantly, so the main effort should be directed to the local population. Although, of course, the question of language plays a role: the Russian love to come where the services are in Russian, while the Greeks go where they can pray in Greek.
For example, in my parish in Hong Kong on a nationality basis parishioners are divided like this: 70% – Russian and Ukrainian – 15% Chinese, 15% – Americans, French and other nationals. In general, Russians in parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church in East Asia constitute the majority (except for Indonesia – where parishioners are mostly Indonesians). In China, there is a special situation – there are CAOC parishes and parishioners in general – very strongly assimilated with the Chinese descendants of Russian settlers. In parishes located in diplomatic missions in China- parishioners are Russian and some foreigners (mostly Americans). In South Korea, where in the parish of the Patriarchate of Constantinople serves our priest, our parishioners – mostly Koreans, however, there are presents a number of all other foreigners. In Singapore – Russian language parish of the Moscow Patriarchate and quite colorful in the composition is the parish of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. In general, everywhere there is variety of situations.
— Does the Russian Orthodox Church and other Orthodox Churches in East Asia use elements of the traditions of local peoples (decoration of churches, the closeness to local mores)? How is the translation of ecclesiastical and liturgical literature into local languages progressing? When entering into the life and experiences of the Church do they bring in some elements which are closer to local residents of words and concepts (it is known that the Western missionaries often translate for the Chinese, New Testament, “I am the bread of life” as more understandable to them, “I am the rice of life”)?
— A common practice of Orthodox parishes in Asia is the use of local languages and cultural elements (such as in China, Thailand and Indonesia, local craftsmen are busy carving iconostasis and candlesticks, are making their appearance with the local elements). In China, there is a custom to consecrate the tea of the new harvest. In Thailand, before entering the temple there is a custom to take off your shoes. Everywhere there are some local features, which give a special flavor to the parishes. However, the most important work – translation of liturgical and doctrinal books to local languages which is necessary as a mechanism for the life of the Orthodox tradition in the context of Asian cultures. Example of using the word “rice” – a private, in general in China is widely distributed bread, so in the basic translation of the Gospel the word “bread” is used in the above quote. Although there are different experiences, for example: “In the beginning was the Dao – one of the options for translating the first words of the Gospel of John.
— Do they send students from the local community to Russia for training in seminaries and theological academies and what is their fate in the dioceses of the ROC? As a whole how are in East Asia represented among the Orthodox clergy, on one hand, Russian and Greek as the representatives of the countries – centers of Orthodoxy, on the other hand – the representatives of indigenous peoples?
— At present in Moscow and Belgorod Theological Seminaries and the Moscow Theological Academy, students from China and Mongolia are studying, students from Thailand, Indonesia and Korea have already completed the training, students from China and Lao are preparing to enroll. Ordained to the sacred dignity are Korean, Thai and Indonesian graduates of our theological schools. In all East Asian countries they have both Greek and Russian priests – but one requires the presence of clergy from the local people, much of the work of preaching the word of God to their countrymen lies precisely on them. Rectors of some parishes in East Asia are the representatives of indigenous peoples: in Pyongyang (Korean graduates of MDS), Thailand (Fr Daniel Vanna – a graduate of St. Petersburg Theological Seminary). In Japan and Korea, almost all the clergy is made up of priests, of indigenous nationalities; the same can be said about Indonesia (where the clergy are the graduates of the Moscow and Belgorod Theological Seminaries). In China, the question of ordination of Chinese clerics still awaiting the solution until it is resolved, the status of the Orthodox Church in China can not be considered normal.

— You are also chairman of the NGO Council of Compatriots in Hong Kong. What is the Russian Diaspora in this city and elsewhere in East Asia?
— In Hong Kong, the Russian Diaspora is few in number – about 600 people, although its growth is observed, eight years ago, there was two times less Russians. In Singapore, there are about two thousand of our compatriots, a few thousand live permanently in Thailand. In different countries there are different trends of migration from country to country, the situation is very different. Almost anywhere (except Japan) it is already impossible to find the descendants of white emigration – in 60-70 years of the twentieth century, almost all of them have left Asia, so we are talking here about a new migration, and not of constant character.
— How are the relations with local representatives of non-Orthodox Christian Churches? Do they differ in composition of their parishioners from the Orthodox community? As a whole how the Christians of various denominations feel in the surrounding of non-Christian peoples of East Asia?
— In different countries the situation is different. In general everywhere we are developing good relationships – to this contributes a different believers environment in which all Christians are naturally closer to each other. I can say that for many Protestants and Catholics in Asia, Orthodoxy has become in recent years, a real discovery – and a lot of people are turning to the Orthodox faith from among the followers of these faiths. Their faith serves as a catechesis, a bridge from paganism to Orthodox Christianity. But the Protestants and Catholics have a long and proud history of service in Asia – in particular, in some countries they have created systems of education, have done a lot for the development of health systems. For example, in Hong Kong Catholics have managed to consolidate its status as a carrier of social justice. And have a great success – from 1950 to 2010, 480,000 people from the local residents embraced Catholicism. Orthodox Church should invest significant financial and human resources so Asian Orthodoxy would not be a marginal minority religion or for foreigners, and would be able to carry word of the gospel to local people in full force. Without the awareness of the missionary nature of the Church nor the Greeks, nor Russian in Asia will not be able to advance in the preaching of Orthodoxy.

Orthodox Churches in the Indian Sub Continent †††

 

 

Orthodox Churches in the Indian Sub Continent and South East Asia

† The Holy Chinese Orthodox Martyrs of the Boxer Rebellion†

The following article tries to discus an account of the presence of Orthodox Churches in India and other Asian countries.
India

Indian Orthodox Church: Also known as Malankara Orthodox Church or Orthodox Syrian Church of the East, it is the largest Orthodox Church ion India, considered to be the national Church of India. This Church traces its origin to the apostolic mission of St Thomas. The imperial domination of the Roman Catholic Church and its devastating effects lead the Church to come in contact with the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch. It uses Syrian liturgy though translations have been made to the local Malayalam language. Catholicate of the Church was established in 1912. The Primate of the Church is address by the title Catholicos of the East on the Apostolic Throne of St Thomas and Metropolitan of Malankara who resides at Develokam, Kottayam, Kerala, India. To this Church belong the world famous Orthodox theologians like Mor Pulose Gregorious, Fr V C Samuel, the first canonized Indian saint, St Gregory of Parumala and also the two church structures originally founded by the St Thomas the, Apostle, (Niranam and Thiruvithamcode) among which the Tiruvithamcode is considered to be the one of the oldest church buildings in the world. The Indian Church has made commendable contributions in the field of education and social change. It manages large number of educational, spiritual and social institutions. The Brahmavar Orthodox community, a reunited group from the Roman Catholic Church to the Indian Orthodox Church is yet another specialty of the this Church. The Latin community got reunited with the Indian Orthodox Church under the auspicious leadership of two saintly personalities, Metropolitan Julius Alvariz of Goa and Padre Rock Lopez Nuronoah. At present there are around 750 families and are organized into a Diocese.

Syrian Orthodox Church in India: Syrian Orthodox Church or the Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church in Indian belongs to the Patriarchate of Antioch and All East. The local Primate of the Church in India is addressed by the title ‘Catholicos of India and Metropolitan Trustee’ who is responsible to the Patriarch of Antioch and All East. The Church Headquarters in India is located at Puthenkurishu Patriarchal Centre, Ernakaulam, Kerala. The Syrian Orthodox Church is the second largest Orthodox Church in India. It operates a number of well established spiritual and educational institutions. Manjaniakkara monastery in Kerala holds the mortal remains of St. Ignatius Elias (Patriarch). Large numbers of people from different parts of the globe make annual pilgrimage to the monastery. There are dioceses under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Antioch such as diocese of Middle East, Australia & New Zealand Malankara Archdiocese of Europe which includes Patriarchal Vicarate of Ireland & Patriarchal vicarate of Germany & Central Europe and the Malankara Archdiocese of North America. Simhasana Churches, Evangelical Association of the East and Knanaya Archdiocese also fall under the direct jurisdiction the Patriarch. The Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church ion India is engaged in several missionary works through the St Paul’s Mission of India. Large numbers of missionary and philanthropic activities are performed by this organization.

* The schism between Indian Orthodox and the Syrian Orthodox Church in India is similar to that existed between the Coptic and Ethiopian Orthodox Churches. Though the Coptic and Ethiopian Churches solved the issue, the Churches in India is yet to reach a consensus on the conflict, which is mainly of administration, power and recognition rather than theological. 

Armenian Orthodox Church: The nation of Armenia has age old trade and cultural relations with India, since 2000 BC. At present a handful of Armenian remain in India, especially in Calcutta. They also run the Armenian College and Philanthropic Academy (ACPA) in Calcutta where a number of Armenian students from various parts of the globe finish their secondary and higher secondary education with scholarships. The Armenian Parishes in India are namely Armenian Holy Church of Nazareth, Kolkata, Armenian St. Gregory’s Church, Kolkata, Armenian Church at Chennai, St. Peter’s Armenian Apostolic Church in Mumbai, Armenian Church at Chinsurah, Church at Saidabad (renovated), Surabaya St. George’s Armenian Apostolic Church, The Holy Trinity Chapel (Church of Tangra). Also there have been many notable Armenian in India who has served with Mughal Kings and several others. The Armenian Community is striving in India despite of many challenges.

Greek Orthodox Church: The Greek Orthodox Community in India is taken care by the Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia of the Ecumenical Patriarchate. The Greek Orthodox community has been active in Calcutta and near by areas for more than ten years or may be more. The Greek Orthodox Church is active with her mission and social activities in Calcutta and some parts of Bangladesh. There are a number of Muslim converts to Orthodoxy in Bangladesh. With assistance of Orthodox Christian Mission Centre (OCMC) and several others the Greek Orthodox Church maintains hostels, job training centers, health clinics and also vibrantly engaged in food distribution for the poor and needy. The Saintly Eldress Gabriella (nun) the legendary Greek Orthodox nun was in India for almost three years from 1963 where she lived in Nani Tal.
Russian Orthodox Church: The largest Orthodox Church in the world has opened a parish in India, New Delhi in the year 2010 within the campus of the Russian Consulate. They also operate a parish in Nepal. The Primate of the Russian Church is ‘Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia’. The Russian Church experience growth worldwide especially after the fall of Soviet Union and Church has become one of the most powerful institutions in modern Russia a key moral force for the common man. The Russian Orthodox Church has vibrant missions all over the world with large number of committed clergy and laymen. Russian Church has brought the largest number of people to Orthodoxy.

China: The Chinese Autonomous Orthodox Church belongs to the Moscow Patriarchate. It is believed that St Thomas the Apostle founded the first roots of Christianity in 68 A.D. Once the largest Church in the world, the Assyrian Church of East had its presence in China. Also there are evidences of Syrian Christian Mission in the Chinese mainland. The vibrant mission of the Russian Orthodox Church paved way for the opening of around 106 Orthodox Churches in 1949, but got disintegrated during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. The Church had around 10,000 followers with schools and orphanages. More than 200 Orthodox members were martyred in the Boxer Rebellion. They are commemorated as remembered on the icon of the Holy Martyrs of China every year in June. At present there are around 15,000 Orthodox Christians in China. There are several active Orthodox congregations in Beijing, in northeast China (in Heilongjiang and elsewhere) and in there are also Orthodox parishes in Shanghai and elsewhere. Two former Orthodox Churches in Shanghai are in the process of being returned to Chinese Church. The Chinese Orthodox Church is yet to be granted formal recognition from the government. The Coptic Orthodox church has built a parish in Guangzhou.

Hong Kong: The Orthodox Church operates freely without much trouble. Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia (OMHKSEA) is a diocese of the Ecumenical Patriarchate which began in the year 1997. The Metropolis of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia looks after the pastoral care of Orthodox Christians in Hong Kong, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar. The Coptic Orthodox Church of St Thomas is also situated in Hong Kong.

Taiwan: The first Orthodox Church was established in 2003. The Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia oversee the Holy Trinity Orthodox Church in Taipei, Taiwan.
Japan: The Japanese Autonomous Church was founded by St. Nikolay (Kasatkin) who came to Japan in 1861 on the decision of the Holy Synod of the Russian Church. He founded and headed the Russian Orthodox mission in Japan in 1870. He translated the Holy Scripture and liturgical books into Japanese and built the Resurrection Cathedral in Tokyo. The Russian Orthodox Church canonized Archbishop Nikolay in 1970. The Moscow Patriarchate granted autonomy to the Japanese Orthodox Church the same year. The Japanese Church is under the supervision of the Russian Orthodox Church. At present there are more than 30,000 Orthodox Christians in Japan. The Primate of the Church is Metropolitan of All Japan and Archbishop of Tokyo. It has three dioceses, a seminary and publishes books in Japanese language. The Coptic Orthodox Church has a Pariah in Kurayoshi City.

Pakistan: There are Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches in Pakistan, mainly the Greek (Ecumenical Patriarch) and Coptic Orthodox Churches. The first Eastern Orthodox priest Fr John Tanveer was ordained in November of the year 2009,. There are 400 Greek Orthodox faithful in Pakistan who are converts from Muslim and other Christian denominations like Roman Catholicism and various Protestant groups. Due to the lack of Church building, the Divine Liturgy is served in one of the houses. The Coptic Orthodox started its first Mission church in Islamabad in 2006 under the Diocese of Melbourne, West & South Australia, New Zealand and All Oceania. At present there are two church one in Islamabad and the other in Rawalpindi.

Sri Lanka: There are no sources about the presence of Orthodox Christians in Sri Lanka. But earlier there had been a good number of Orthodox Christians and several churches under the Indian Orthodox Church. The missionary works of Mor Rene Villate, the first archbishop of America. But later the entire community disbanded.
Nepal: The Indian Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church has congregations in Nepal as per the 2010 reports.

Indonesia: There are Russian and Greek Orthodox (Ecumenical Patriarchate) presence in Indonesia. The Indonesian Orthodox communities are engaged in vibrant mission activities though the number of Orthodox Christians remains limited. There are some noted Orthodox priest like Archimandrite Daniel (Russian Orthodox Church outside Russia – Moscow Patriarchate) and Father Yohanes Bambang (Ecumenical Patriarchate). Archimandrite Daniel played a pioneer and vital role in establishing the foundations of Orthodoxy.
Orthodox Christian Center Surabaya which was opened on the 15th of October 2008 by Father Yohanes Bambang. The head Orthodox Church in Indonesia, St Nikolas is also based in Surabaya. Orthodox Center Surabaya Foundation is engaged in large number of educational and philanthropic activities among the local Indonesian communities. As future activities it aims at establishing Play group, Kindergarten, Elementary School, Junior High School, High School and University in short, middle and long term and also an Orthodox Seminary for religious education. Fr Yohanes Bambang is constantly engaged in Orthodox mission and preaching Orthodoxy to various Protestants and other Christian denominations. The Russian Orthodox Church outside Russia (Moscow Patriarchate) has around 23 parishes and communities in Indonesia.

Mongolia: There was Orthodox presence in Mongolia from the very early times. The first Orthodox Church on Mongolian territory, the Church of St. Troitsky, was established at Khalkha in 1872. A Russian Orthodox Church was built in Ulaanbaatar in the year 2007. The Russian Orthodox Church in Magnolia is limited in numbers but several Protestants and Roman Catholics are getting interested in Orthodoxy. The Orthodox Church mission is getting slowly active among the Mongols. A TV programme introducing the basics of Orthodoxy is also broadcasted.

South Korea: The first Orthodox Divine Liturgy was celebrated in the year 1900 by the Russian Orthodox Priest. In the year 1955 the Korean Orthodox Church unanimously decided to be under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical patriarchate. Today the Orthodox Metropolis of Korea comprises of ten parishes with several hundred members in South Korea, as well as one monastery.

North Korea: In 2006 the government of North Korea recognized the establishment of one Orthodox parish (Moscow Patriarchate) in the capital city of Pyongyang.

Singapore: Coptic Orthodox Church, Syrian Orthodox Church (Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church of India), and Indian Orthodox Churches has members in Singapore. There is a historical Armenian Orthodox Church ‘Armenian Church of Saint Gregory the Illuminator’ located at Hill Street in the Museum Planning Area, within the Central Area, Singapore’s central business district, which does not have permanent clergy. Armenian and Eastern Orthodox services were held occasionally, on Christmas and Easter, for a number of years. But the Church is now regularly used by the Coptic and Syrian Orthodox communities to serve liturgy. The Armenian Church became a national monument in 1963. A small, but growing number of Eastern Orthodox congregation made up of ethnic Greeks, and Russians also constitute the Orthodox population in Singapore. The Holy Metropolis of Singapore is an Eparchy of the Ecumenical Patriarchate established in 2008 to serve the pastoral needs of Orthodox Christians in Singapore, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Maldives Islands, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka.

Thailand: Orthodox Christian Church in Thailand (Russian Orthodox Church) serves both foreign and local Thai believers who are converts to Orthodoxy. In March 2011 the first Orthodox monastery was established in Thailand. The Orthodox Church of Thailand has the Orthodox parish of Saint Nicolas in Bangkok and other congregations in Phuket and Chonburi province. They have translated the liturgy of Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, the Orthodox Book of prayer and a book about the history of Russian Orthodox Church into the Thai language. The Coptic Orthodox Church operates two parishes in Thailand.

Malaysia: The Indian Orthodox Church has a cathedral in Malaysia with almost 193 families. The Indian Orthodox Church in Malaysia comes under Diocese of Madras, together with churches in South India outside Kerala, the Andaman Islands, Singapore and Australia. Fr K A George conducted the first Divine liturgy in the moth of August 1956. Metropolitan Mathews Mar Athanasius conducted the consecration service of the church on 6 April 1958. This was the first ever Diaspora Church (outside India) of the Indian Orthodox Church. The Coptic Orthodox Church also operates a parish in Malaysia.

Vietnam: The Russian Orthodox Parish of ‘Our lady of Kazan’ was opened in the year 2002 in Vung Tau where there are many Russian employees of the Russian-Vietnamese joint venture “Vietsovpetro”. In Regular Paschal liturgies are organized in the parish. There shall be more than 500 orthodox members in Vietnam.The Ecumenical Patriarchate has plans to open mission in Vietnam but so far no activities have been reported.

Philippines: The presence of Orthodoxy in Philippines was evident from 1600s Armenian, Greek and Macedonian Orthodox Christians. Later the Russian Orthodox Christian arrived also St. John Maximovitch had established a church for the Russians, but did not preach Orthodoxy in the island. At present there are Greek, Antiochian and Russian Orthodox Churches (ROCR) in the island. There are three Filipino Priests and four nuns within the Ecumenical Patriarchate’s Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. The Antiochian Orthodox Christian Mission in the Philippines was established under the Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia and New Zealand. In 2008, two Filipino denominations were received into the Antiochian church, including 32 communities with some 6,000 believers. Some of them later joined ROCOR as Western Rite parishes under St Petroc Monastery Mission Society. Adamson University presently owned by the Vincentian Fathers of the Roman Catholic Church was originally founded by two Greek Orthodox Christians. Alexandros Athos Adamopoulos (Alexander A. Adamson), who was one of the first Greek Orthodox to arrive in the island along with his brother, co-founded the university in 1932.

Australia & News Zealand : Australia has strong presence of Orthodoxy in the form of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches. The Greek Orthodox church of Australia is very vibrant with several numbers of parishes, schools, colleges, theological seminaries, old age homes, orphanages, monasteries and other establishments. The Russian, Serbian, Antiochian, Romanian, Polish and Bulgarian Orthodox churches also have good number of followers and converts and also operate several educational and social institutions. Some of them do not have hierarchy – resident Bishop in Australia. The Russian Orthodox mission has taken up a number of abandoned church buildings from Roman Catholics and various Protestant denominations. The Orthodox Church in America (OCA) has one or two parishes in Australia. The Coptic Orthodox Church is well established in Australia with Seminaries, and other institutions. Also there are Indian, Armenian, Syrian and Ethiopian Orthodox Churches in Australia. New Zealand has Orthodox presence in the form of several Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches, especially Greek and Coptic Churches.

Fiji: The Coptic Orthodox Church has two parish Churches in Fiji. The Church has also purchased some acres of land for cultivation and other supportive activities for the local Fijian communities.

Timor: As per June 2010 a new Orthodox Church is being built in West Timor, Indonesia part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara. This is the first Orthodox church to be built in West Timor. The new church will be under the Orthodox Metropolitnate of Singapore of the Ecumenical Patriarchate.

*Apart from the above mentioned Churches, there are many main stream and traditional (old calendar) orthodox jurisdictions in different parts of Asia.
*The article includes the details Diaspora and native Orthodox Christians of different Churches
*The Orthodox communities are dynamically engaged in several spiritual, social, educational activities and have developed numerous institutions for the service of humanity.

Special Courtesy: Mithropan
George Alexander
Secretary &Spokesperson
Orthodoxy Cognate PAGE
Email:theorthodoxchurch.info@gmail.com

The forgotten Orthodox Christians of Bosnia and Kosovo

 

 

The forgotten Orthodox Christians of Bosnia and Kosovo

by OCP on December 3, 2010

in Articles,Featured Article

 

Lee Jay Walker, The Modern Tokyo Times:

I come from a member state of the European Union which is meant to uphold the rights of all religions, political ideologies, acknowledge national and cultural rights, and is meant to spread “European brotherhood.” However, it appears that this does not apply to the Orthodox Christians of Bosnia and Kosovo respectively because not only have they been abandoned but outside Islamic powers are stepping up their Islamization agenda in both Bosnia and Kosovo.
In Kosovo the de-Christianization of the Orthodox Christian community continues and hundreds of Orthodox Christian churches have been destroyed but little was done to protect this community. It should be remembered that the Christian Serbs helped to preserve the shared European identity in history from the marauding Islamic Turks who enslaved countless numbers of Christians throughout the Balkans during the Ottoman Empire.
Yet in modern times it is clear that Iran, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and other non-European nations, are intent on creating an Islamized Balkans and this applies to Albania, Bosnia, the Sandzak in Serbia, northeastern Bulgaria and the Rhodope Mountains region, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Montenegro. At the same time increasing Islamic immigration in Greece is creating tensions and Turkey is intent on preserving its armed forces in northern Cyprus.
The above mentioned places may sometimes have a continuous border line or they may be divided by geography and thinking because you have many branches within Islam. However, for pan-Islamists in Bosnia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and a host of other nations, it is a dream and clearly the European Union alongside America supported the “green flag of Islam” during the collapse of Yugoslavia.
In my article called Islam in Bosnia is the new stepping stone I stated that Alija Izetbegovic stated that “… Muslim nations will never accept anything that is explicitly against Islam, because Islam here is not merely a faith and the law, Islam has become love and compassion. He who rises against Islam will reap nothing but hate and resistance. …”
Izetbegovic was a pan-Islamist and he allowed thousands of Islamic terrorists from all over the world to join his Islamic jihadist campaign by allowing them to slaughter innocent Orthodox Christians in Bosnia. At the same time he played the “Muslim victim card” in front of the Western media. However, Izetbegovic shared the same global jihadist ideals and pan-Islamic thought patterns because he stated “… In one of the thesis for an Islamic order today we have stated that it is a natural function of the Islamic order to gather all Muslims and Muslim communities throughout the world into one. Under present conditions, this desire means a struggle for creating a great Islamic federation from Morocco to Indonesia, from the tropical Africa to the Central Asia. …”
Vojin Joksimovich who is the author of “The Revenge of the Prophet” highlights the international nature of Islam in Bosnia because he states that “The jihadists, from their bases and support facilities in Iran, Sudan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and elsewhere, did not come to Bosnia only to fight against the ‘Serbian aggressor,’ but for the first European religious state at large, for the establishment of the only faith among the European Muslims.” (Page 145)
This comment highlights the reality of Izetbegovic and the pan-Islamic card. Vojin Joksimovich continues by stating that the “Creation of Islamic states, so-called Jamahirya states, was the ultimate objective of all these movements. With the Koran in their hands the jihadists did not distinguish between Catholicism and Orthodoxy, only between believers and unbelievers.” (Page 145)
However, Islamic jihadists and pan-Islamists from Bosnia and other parts of the world had only a short period to enact their Islamic jihad via the sword and this applies to when war broke out in Bosnia and Kosovo respectively. Yet the military battlefield and “Muslim victim card” image would lay the foundation for future political and religious ambitions in the Balkans and of course Bosnia would be the stepping stone that would help the ambitions of people like Izetbegovic.
In an article written by Bojan Pancevski in The Sunday Times newspapers which is published in the United Kingdom he comments (Saudis fund Balkan Muslims spreading hate of the west – March 28, 2010) that “SAUDI ARABIA is pouring hundreds of millions of pounds into Islamist groups in the Balkans, some of which spread hatred of the West and recruit fighters for jihad in Afghanistan”.
The article continues by stating that “According to officials in Macedonia, Islamic fundamentalism threatens to destabilize the Balkans. Strict Wahhabi and Salafi factions funded by Saudi organisations are clashing with traditionally moderate local Muslim communities.”
Sources also reveal that “Classified documents seen by The Sunday Times reveal that Macedonian officials are also investigating a number of Islamic charities, some in Saudi Arabia, which are active throughout the Balkans and are suspected of spreading extremism and laundering money for terrorist organisations.”
The article also highlights the sinister reality of Saudi Arabia by stating that “Hundreds of millions have been poured into Macedonia alone in the past decade and most of it comes from Saudi Arabia,” said a government source. “The Saudis’ main export seems to be ideology, not oil.”
“The West has put considerable political and financial efforts into helping build democracy in Bosnia following its civil war in the 1990s. Saudi organizations have also asserted considerable influence, giving more than £450m to build more than 150 mosques and Islamic centres.”
Therefore, while Muslim nations and radical Islamic charities are spreading radical Islam in the Balkans you have the reality of Serbian Orthodox Christians in Kosovo being abandoned and clearly the Bosnian Serbian entity is not desired by America, the European Union or important Islamic nations.
In my article called Radical Islamic Charities and Jihad in the Balkans I highlight Vojin Joksimovich again because he states that“Bosnia established a successful model for embattled countries around the world: organizing, arming, and funding mujahideen units, skimming money from humanitarian charities, linking up with crime bosses including narco-terrorists, etc. Islamism both produces and profits from mayhem. Albeit to a much lesser magnitude, the Bosnian model was replicated later on in Kosovo, Southern Serbia and Macedonia. Al Qaeda and the Taliban found a route for the heroin trafficking from Afghanistan into Europe via the Balkans.” Page 150
I also commented in the same article that “….just like the rise of the Taliban and radical Islam in modern day southern Thailand and Pakistan, it is the role of the Islamic madrasas which must be eliminated and not merely contained. The role of Islamic charities must also be tackled because many are a gateway to spreading radical Islam and if this “gateway” is not stopped and challenged, then alongside religious Islamic educational institutions which are sponsored by Saudi nationals and others; then the spread of radical Islam will not be defeated.
It is clear that America and the European Union desires a unified Bosnia and Islamic elites within the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina are hoping that the Republic Srpska will be swallowed up.
Currently you have a Christian majority within all of Bosnia but the majority is slender and given the higher Muslim birthrate and the reality of what happened to the majority Christian population of Kosovo in history then the future looks bleak. In truth, if you look at history then it is nigh impossible to find a stable Muslim democratic nation where democracy flourished and where religious minorities also grew and had full equality within the legal system.
De-Christianization in Kosovo is a modern day reality when it applies to the Serbian Orthodox Christian community and this applies to the decreasing Serbian population, destruction of Christian churches, the eradication of Serbian architecture, and constant persecution and marginalization by the majority Muslim Albanian population.
The late Patriarch Pavle who sadly passed away in November, 2009, stated (http://kosovo.net) that “This humble publication is our cry and appeal to the Christian and civilized world. It is distressing to learn that in the year of the greatest Christian Jubilee, at the end of two millenniums of Christianity, Christian churches are still being destroyed, not in a war but in the time of peace guaranteed by the international community. We hope that these photos of the destroyed and desecrated Orthodox shrines will awaken the conscience of those who are able to stop the crimes and believe that they who already stood up against one evil will not remain just passive witnesses of another evil happening now in their presence.”
However, the same mass media which distorted the conflict is now the same mass media which is mainly silent about current events in Kosovo. Also, the Bosnian Serbian leadership in Republic Srpska is marginalized by the international community because Western nations prefer the Muslim elites in Sarajevo.
Maybe one day the Serbian Orthodox Christian community in Bosnia will face the same fate which befell their co-religionists in Kosovo. After all, Islamic nations and organizations are funding many Islamic institutions throughout the region and added to the higher Muslim birthrate and pro-American policies towards the Muslims of Bosnia and Kosovo then this could become a future reality.
What is clear is that time is not on the side of the Republic Srpska because either it will join with Serbia or become an independent state whereby Serbians will be guaranteed their freedom. Or it will be swallowed up by the American backed unitary Bosnian state under the Muslim elites of Bosnia and with the full backing of many Islamic nations.
If the latter happens and with the reality of the higher Muslim birthrate then in time the Serbian population will be further marginalized. Or at worse the Bosnian Serbs will face their “Kosovo Golgotha” and given the events of past history and the ongoing reality of de-Christianization of the Serbian Orthodox Christian community in Kosovo then this scenario is a clear possibility.
(This article is dedicated to Liz Milanovich who cares deeply about the plight of Christian Serbs in Kosovo and throughout the former Yugoslavia. Liz Milanovich helps me greatly by providing daily information.)